INTRODUCTION
“Insofar as we love the gospel, to that same extent, let us study the ancient tongues”----Martin Luther
Constantine Campbell answers questions about his book.
1. What is this book about? “The issues of contention, development, and even revolution are the focus here” (21). The topic concerns Koine Greek and not ancient.
2. How is this book unique? Over the past thirty there has been a paradigm shift and Campbell discusses these shifts such as the rise of discourse analysis and verbal aspect.
3. Why is this book needed? Advances in Greek linguistics can lead to insights into text and correct long term errors (23).
4. Why include these topics? Campbell answers this question by giving a preview of his coming chapters.
5. How should this book be used? It should be used for both personal study and classroom work because these are his classroom notes converted into a book (26).
6. What is the intended outcome of this book? Campbell gives eight outcomes he desires to result from the reading of his book.
Chapter 1: A Short History of Greek Studies: The Nineteenth Century to the Present Day
The Nineteenth Century
The nineteenth century saw dramatic advance in the analysis of Greek through philology and breakthroughs in understanding the Greek verbal system (30). Georg Curtius (1846ff.) was the first to argue that temporal reference is limited to the indicative mood and is not a feature of the other moods (31).
The Early Twentieth Century
Adolf Deissman (1895ff.) revealed based on papyri discoveries that “biblical Greek” was no different from “profane” or the popular Greek of the time (33). James Hope Moulton (1906) proved that the Greek of the NT is consonant with the vernacular Koine of the papyri (34). A. T. Robertson (1914) produced the greatest of all NT Greek grammars (34).
Modern Linguistics
The new era moved toward synchronic linguistics namely “the analysis of languages as communicative systems as they exist at a given point in time often the present” (35). J. R. Firth (1957) was influential in the London School of linguistics. Firth focused on phonology, semantics, and syntax. James Barr (1961) in his famous The Semantics of Biblical Language exposed the “etymological fallacy” that meaning comes from form and the construction of theology through word studies, such as is seen in Kittel’s Theological Dictionary (41). M. A. K. Halliday (1961ff.) is one of the best known students to come out of the London School of linguistics and is the founding figure of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). Kenneth L. McKay (1965ff.) is the father of modern aspect studies. He advocated that “the tenses of ancient Greek do not signal time except by implication from their relationship to their context”(43). Both Porter and Fanning were greatly influenced by McKay. Johannes Louw and Eugene Nida in their Greek-English Lexicon of the NT Based on Semantic Domains in 1989 is based on “semantic domain” rather than alphabet.
The Modern Era (1989-
The Modern Era can be traced back to McKay in 1965, Louw and Nida, James Voelz, Moisés Silva, and James Boyer. Stanley E. Porter (1989) published his Verbal Aspect in the Greek of the NT in 1989. Porter and Fanning remain the founding fathers of modern aspect scholarship in Greek (45). Buist M. Fanning (1990) and Porter contributed to the “relaunching of the study of Greek verbal aspect and, indeed, the relaunching of Greek studies in general”(46).
Chapter 2: Linguistic Theories
2.1 Introduction
He addresses the difference between the study of language and the study of linguistics. The study of language is the study of the “content” of a language. Linguistics...is the study of the phenomenon of language: the principles of how language works...The linguist is interested in the theory of language, while the language student learns to understand and use a particular language (52).
2.2 Linguistics and NT Greek
Students hesitate to study the linguistics because it is in a state of flux (53).
2.2.1 The Need for Linguistic Theory
We cannot consult Greek grammars without consideration of their linguistic presuppositions and methodologies (55).
2.3 Branches of Linguistics
1. General and Descriptive LinguisticS
General linguistics is the study of the language itself. Descriptive linguistics is the study of a particular language, like Greek (55).
2. Diachronic and synchronic study of language.
The diachronic approach studies the history of a language and synchronic studies the language at particular point of time (56).
3. The theoretical and applied linguistics.
The theoretical is interested in the theory and the applied in applying the theory.
4. The microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.
The study of Greek today is theoretical, synchronic, and microlinguistic, in that language is the focal point, not its role in sociolinguistics or psycholinguistics (57).
2.4 Linguistic Theories
There are two major divisions within linguistic schools: Generative and functional linguistics (58).
2.4.1 Generative Linguistics
Generative linguistics is characterized by the core assumption that all languages are ultimately shaped by a universal grammar, or universals of linguistic structure (59).
2.4.2 Functional Linguistics
Functional linguistics do not use universals but seek to treat each language on it own terms (60).
2.5 Systemic Functional Linguistics
One prominent school of functional linguistics is the Systemic Functional Linguistics developed by M. A. K. Halliday.
2.5.1 Functional
The power of language, contend Halliday and Matthiessen, created the modern human brain (63).
2.5.2 Systemic
Language is a system of choices and unchooses (63). When the author chooses the aorist he has unchosen the imperfect....we ought to be able to predict when one will be used rather than the other (64)
2.5.3 Metafunction
The three metafunctions are the grand functions of language (64).
2.5.3.1 Ideational metafunction
A clause is not simply a group of words; a meaningful clause is a group of words that bear a logical relation to each other (65).
2.5.3.2 Interpersonal metafunction
If the ideational function of grammar is language as reflection, this is language as action (65).
2.5.3.3 Textual metafunction
For any successful communication to occur, information must be encoded into a coherent text (66).
2.5.4 Semantics and Grammar
Systemic Functional Linguistics seeks to unpack how “meaning” (semantics) is related to “wordings”(grammar, or lexicogrammar) (66). Greek, like all languages, has its own code, with its semantic meanings being encoded in the lexicogrammatical wordings of Greek, and Greek alone (67).
2.5.5 Syntagmatic Chains and Paradigmatic Choice
2.6 Functional Linguistics and NT Greek
One of the debated facets about Greek verbal aspect is whether or not temporal reference (“time” or “tense”) is encoded in the indicative verb form (69). Porter claims that temoral refernce is not a semantic category of indicative verbs, since there are so many examples of indicatives expressing actions that are not set in the time frame in which they are supposed to be, the historical present is an example (70).
Chapter 3: Lexical Semantics and Lexicography
3.1 Introduction
Lexical semantics, or lexicology, is concerned with the meaning of words. Lexicography aims to produce a lexicon---the collected results of lexical semantics for all words of a language. Lexical semantics is more theoretical than lexicology...A lexicon such as BDAG is a product of lexicography (73).
3.2 Lexical Semantics
This section provides some key theoretical issues in lexical semantics.
3.2.1 Symbol-Sense-Referent
3.2.2 Synonymy
3.2.3 Context
3.2.4 Lexical Choice
3.2.5 Lexical Fields
3.2.6 Ambiguity
3.2.7 Implication of Lexical Semantics
3.3 NT Greek Lexicography
Lexicography is the study of words with a view to their collection in a dictionary (82).
3.3.1 Difficulties in Practice
Frederick William Danker evaluates lexicons like BDAG and Louw and Nida shows their weaknesses but states that Louw and Nida are an improvement.
Chapter 4: Deponency and The Middle Voice
4.1 Introduction
A paradigm swift is taking place in our understanding of....the concept of deponency (91).
In linguistics, a deponent verb is a verb that is active in meaning but takes its form from a different voice, most commonly the middle or passive. A deponent verb has no active forms (Wikipedia).
Campbell contends that “we should seriously consider abandoning the category of deponency” (99).
Chapter 5: Verbal Aspect and AktionsarT
5.1 Introduction
Verbal aspect has been the most controversial issue within Greek studies in the last twenty-five years (105).
5.2 What is Verbal Aspect?
Verbal aspect is defined as viewpoint. “The viewpoint is the way in which a verb is used to view an action, either from the outside (perfective aspect as in the aorist tense) and from the inside (imperfective aspect as with the present and imperfect tenses)” (106-107). To use A. V. Isacendo’s illustration, perfective aspect is the helicopter view of the parade and imperfective is the street level view.
5.2.1 Distinctions between Tense, Aktionsart, and Aspect
5.2.1.1 Tense
The past tense aorist and imperfect are always in the past.
5.2.1.2 Aktionsart
The word literally means “type of action: (108). In Romans 5:14, Paul says that “death reigned ἐβασίλευσεν (aorist, active, indicative) from Adam to Moses.” The aorist is perfective is aspect and does not mean punctiliar here as aorists are generally thought to mean. This aorists gives a summary of hundreds of years.
5.2.2 A Tense-Aspect Confusion
Porter argues there is no tense in any Greek verbs but there are verbal aspects. Fanning argues there is tense in the indicative mood only, but does believe in aspect.
5.3 A Brief History
K. L. McKay argued for no tense encoded in verbs. Stanley E. Porter contended for the “tenseless” position for all verbs. Buist M. Fanning argued for tense in the indicative mood. Rodney J. Decker followed Porter. Contantine R. Campbell follows McKay, Porter, and Decker on the issue of tense. Except the future indicative mood has tense encoded.
5.4 Verbal Aspect and Temporal Reference
Campbell believes all verbs are “tenseless” except the future indicative mood and tense-forms do have default temporal functions. Aorist indicative normally refer to the past about 85 percent of the time.
5.5 Debate over the Greek Perfect
There are 836 instances of the perfect indicative in the NT. Fanning holds to an aspectually-modified version of the traditional understanding to the perfect i.e., the perfect indicates a past action with present consequences. Porter regards the perfect as stative in aspect and thus holds to a three-aspect schema for the verbal system. Campbell regards the perfect as imperfective in aspect (118-119).
5.6 Verbal Aspect and Exegesis
5.6.1 Aspect and Aktionsart Interactions
Verbal aspect (perfective, imperfective, and stative) is encoded in verbal forms at the semantic level and is uncancelable. The Aktionsart or function or the pragmatics changes according to context.
5.6.2 Aspect and Narrative Structure
First, let us consider the structure of narrative texts. There are two main distinctions in narratives: narrative proper and discourse proper. In narrative proper there are mainline and offline strands. Mainline communicates the sequential events that form the skeletal structure of the entire narrative. Offline material provides supplemental information that comments on, explains, fills out the mainline action (124). Discourse proper reports speech as though is it unfolding.
5.6.3 Aspect and Planes of Discourse
Porter’s planes of discourse included background, foreground, and frontground. The aorist (perfective aspect) is the background information. The least significance. The present and imperfect (imperfective aspect) is the foreground information. Greater significance. The perfect and pluperfect (stative aspect) is the frontground information has the greatest significance found mostly in discourse proper. Campbell noted nonprominent uses of the pluperfect in disagreement with Porter. Campbell contends that approximately one third of pluperfects in the NT are not prominent. Campbell concludes that “it seems prudent to call into question that planes of discourse model in general: if it does not accommodate the pluperfect, how accurate is the model? (130). It is far more secure to recognize the usage of the pluperfect in terms of providing supplemental, descriptive, and explicatory material, which together is designate as background information. The provision of such information is the normal pragmatic expression of the aspect of the pluperfect.
Chapter 6: Idolect, Genre, and Register
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Idiolect
Idiolect is the individual authors’ Greek style. For example, Matthew employs 89 historical presents, which represent 12 present of the 753 present indicatives in the book. Of these historical presents, 70 function to introduce reported discourse, while 17 are verbs of propulsion, which are related to coming and going, moving from one place to another, giving and receiving, and so forth. Mark has 151 historical presents, representing 29 percent of his total 514 present indicatives. Of these, 90 historical presents introduce reported discourse, while 61 are verbs of propulsion. Mark also tends to use historical presents in paragraph-initial positions, to introduce new characters, and for scene changes. There are also some instances of clustering with 8 historical presents within 11 verses in 15:17-27
6.3 Genre
Campbell distinguish between literary genres (whole works) and literary forms, (such as parables, and embedded narratives) (140). With respect to literary genres, the Pauline epistles adhere to Hellenistic letterform, while the Gospels align with Greco-Roman biography....Their form is narrative; their genre is biography. As we investigate the function of verbal aspect within the Gospels, we are therefore looking at its function in narrative forms, since biographical genre implies narrative form.
The narrative form employs predictable aspectual patterns. Aorist indicatives, which are perfective in aspect, normally carry the mainline of narrative proper, marking out ists skeletal structure. Imperfect indicatives, which are imperfective in aspect, are normally used for offline material, as well as, pluperfect indicatives that supplements, describes, and explains other events, characters, or situations. Present indicatives, which are also imperfective in aspect, find their default usage in direct and indirect discourse. They also function as historical presents in the narrative mainline. Perfect indicatives, which are imperfective in aspect, are nearly exclusivel found in reported discourse (141). Aspectual usage within the narrative genre/form contrast with the usage within the epistolary genre.
6.3 Register
Register is synonymous with genre for Hallday. “Register may be defined as a configuration of meanings that is associated with a particular situation” (142). There are personal blogs and high end news paper blogs, which both have their unique vocabulary, etc. This is what is meant by register. Paul’s letters have different registers as letters to individuals (Philemon) and letters to churches (Romans). With respect to Mark’s gospel, Porter observes that it appears to be written in a literate culture, and the context of situation seems to be one in which the recipient community was already convinced of who Jesus was. Though this is certainly deatable, if Porter is correct it might be concluded that Mark is not persuasive in register, but is intended to teach believers (143).
Chapter 7: Discourse Analysis I: Hallidayan Approaches
Introduction
“Discourse analysis is an interdisciplinary approach to understanding how units of text relate to one another in order to create the theme, message, and structure of a text. It is concerned to discover linguistic patterns in text, using grammatical and semantic criteria, such as cohesion, anaphora, ad inter-sentence connectivity. Discourse analysts are often interested in ‘discourse markers,’ which are elements of language that demarcate units of text. The simplest way to think of discourse analysis is that it deals with text beyond level of the sentence---the pericope, paragraph, wider units, and the text as a whole” (148-149). Discourse analysis compliments traditional mode of exegesis (149). Grammar focuses on the trees and DA on the forest.
Chapter 7 focuses on the approach to DA by M. A. K. Halliday.
There are four major schools of DA. The critique of the four schools is based somewhat on Stanley E. Porter’s in Discourse Analysis and Other Topics in Biblical Greek.
1. Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL). This approach was critiqued for not extending far beyond sentence-level analysis. David A. Black was also put in the category.
2. Halliday and Hasan DA was based on English rather than Greek.
3. Continental Europe is so diverse that Porter thinks it is not as valuable.
4. J. P. Louw’s DA is based on a subjective method based on cola. “These cola are units formed around a nominative and predicate structure
Cohesion
For Halliday, the central concern of discourse analysis is cohesion. For Halliday, DA is what makes a text a text rather than a collection of unrelated utterance is two contexts: the first is the literary context and the second is the context of situation or the historical context. Campbell focuses on the literary context. What are the ways in which a text creates cohesion within itself? Halliday and Matthiessen identify four ways in which cohesion is created in English: conjunction, reference, ellipsis, and lexical cohesion.
Conjunction
Conjunction refers to markers that indicate that a clause relates to a previous one (154).
Reference
Reference are explicit markers that refer to a common item as “this” or “that” as with demonstrative pronouns in Greek (154).
Ellipsis
Ellipsis leaves out the explicit marker because it can be presumed from the context. Romans 3:27 is given as an example (156).
Lexical Cohesion
Lexical cohesion includes repetition of a word like faith in Romans 3:22-28.
The Analysis of Cohesion
The key to the analysis of cohesion is the “tie” which “connects parts of a text together” (157). There are “organic ties” which are built into a language for connective purposes, such as markers of transition (e.g., gar, alla, de, and kai). Componential Ties are ties between words or phrase which includes co-reference which can refer to temporal deixis which can create cohesion through references to the same temporal frame, indicated by adverbs such as tote, nun, and mechri (158). “The discourse analyst can point to these explicit markers with a degree of ease in describing how a particular text hangs together” (159).
Evaluation
One criticism of Halliday and Hasan’s theory of cohesion is the lack of direct application to Greek. Campbell states that “students of the Greek NT will benefit from tracing the coherence of a text through the markers of cohesion elucidated by Halliday and Hasan” (160).
Chapter 8: Discourse Analysis II: Levinsohn and Runge
Introduction
One way that Stephen Levinsohn is different from Halliday is that Levinsohn’s method is directly applied to the Greek of the NT.
Stephen H. Levinsohn
Basic Theory
Levinsohn notes that discourse analysis “draws its explanation outside the sentence (not on the syntactic or morphological) but the wider context” (164). Eclecticism in that he takes a seed idea from one source and develop it in another direction. Functional Approach is interested in linguistic structures because of what they serve not just the structure of a language for its own sake. Idiolect or an author with use discourse features in a consistent way and other authors will use discourse features differently. Markedness means when a marker is present the feature implied by the marker is also present (165). Semantic Meaning and Pragmatic Effects are to be distinguished.
Constituent Order is like word order but extended to phrases and clauses order.
Coherence and Discontinuities.
Sections are demarcated in similar and dissimilar ways
Point of Departure
The use of a clause to provide a starting point for the following clauses.
Constituent Order
Sentence Conjunctions
Kai and De in Narrative
De unlike kai signals a new step or development in the author’s story or argument (168).
Tote, Nonconjunctive Kai, and Te Solitarium
Tote is an adverb that may function as a conjunction and it retains a temporal expression and functions as a cohesive device.
Patterns of Reference
Backgrounding and Highlighting Devices
Levinsohn claims that with respect to verbal aspect imperfective aspect is less important than perfective aspect.
Levisohn notes that the “presence of a historical present most often has the effect of highlighting what follows. The historical present highlights the event(s) that follows especially in Mark and John. It indicates prominence (172-173).
The Reporting of Conversion
Boundary Features
Porter critiques Levisohn because of his stress on the sentence
Steven E. Runge
His Discourse Grammar of the NT is the subject of this review. The application of Runge’s discourse analysis is in his The Lexham Discourse Greek NT.
Foundations
Runge adopts a junction-based approach with three core principles:
1. Choice implies meaning
2. Semantic meaning should be differentiated from pragmatic effect
3. Default patterns of usage should be distinguished from marked ones
Connectives
Runge uses connectives rather than conjunctions because connectives are more than conunctions.
Forward-Pointing Device
Runge stresses the importance of the Historical present to indicate transitions
Information Structuring Devices
Thematic Highlighting Devices
Runge makes much of the near/far distinction with the demonstrative pronouns. The near demonstrative indicates thematic entities, while the far demonstrative indicate nonthematic entities. Runge on Romans 6:1-6 is provided to show an analysis of discourse in The Lexham Discourse Greek NT
Evaluation
Campbell states that “there is a preoccupation with discourse at the level of the clause and sentence.
Halliday is much broader in his discourse analysis and Runge is more focused on the level of clauses and sentence, which is the building blocks necessary for discourse analysis, and therefore these two different approaches could complement each other.
Chapter 9: Pronunciation
9.1 Introduction
Pronunciation of Greek is debated today.
9.2 Erasmus’ Error (?)
Erasmus was not wrong about classical Greek. Erasmus did not appreciate the difference between classical and Koine Greek (195). The pronunciation that is essentially the same as that of modern Greek today was in place by the time the NT was written (200). Daniel Wallace defends Erasmus’ pronunciation primarily for pedagogical reasons.
Chapter 10: Teaching and Learning Greek
10.1 Introduction
Teachers who do want to waste their time and the time of their students who will forget all their Greek must pay attention to pedagogy.
10.2 Fresh Ideas for Traditional Methods
The only really significant alternative to the traditional approach currently is the immersion method (210).
10.2.1 Reading Greek
Rodney Decker’s new grammar, Reading Koine Greek, has students reading Greek in the second chapter.
10.2.2 Technology
Knowing Greek is not simply a matter of being able to parse and translate. Having your machine do the hackwork for you does not replicate the ability to read Greek for yourself (14).
10.2.3 Learning Styles
He calls the two-way communication method of learning Greek the immersion method.
10.3 Immersion Methods
Is the method of teaching in the language that is being learned.