Chapter I: What is Verbal Aspect?
Verbal Aspect
The simplest way to define verbal aspect is viewpoint. An author views an action, event, or state from the outside of an action, event, or state is called perfective aspect. The helicopter view of beginning and end of the parade. Inside of an action, event, or state is called imperfective aspect. The street or inside view of the parade. Verbal aspect in Greek is called a synthetic semantic category because aspect is realized in the morphological forms of verbs. Verbal aspect represents a subjective choice (20).
Tense
The past tense (aorist, perfect, imperfect) can have different meanings. The past can have future meanings. The difference between two past tenses in Greek---is the type of action, or Aktionsart.
Aktionsart
The German word means “type of action.” Aktionsart refers to how an action actually takes place. Aspect refers to viewpoint---how the action is viewed. Aktionsart describes how an action took place: If it happened as a once-occurring, instantaneous event, it is called punctiliar. If the action was repeated over and over, it is called iterative. If the action focuses on the beginning, it is called ingressive.
Semantic
Semantics refers to the values that are encoded in the verbal form. This is verbal semantics or grammatical semantics which has uncancelable properties of the verb form. When referring to the wide semantic range of meaning of a word today it is correct to refer the lexical semantics of a word. Aspect is a semantic value.
Pragmatics
Pragmatics refers to how the word is used in the context which may not match the verbal semantics of the word. The pragmatics of a word change from context to context. They are cancelable.
Semantics asks “Who am I?” Pragmatics asks “What do I do?” I might change what I do but I have not changed who I am. Aspect is a semantic value. Aorist is always perfective. Aktionsart, on the other hand, is a pragmatic value. Sometimes an aorist will be punctiliar, iterative, sometimes ingressive in Aktionsart. It all depends on context.
Conclusion
The viewpoint is what an author subjectively chooses when portraying and action, event, or state. There are two viewpoints: the perfective aspect or the view from outside as from the helicopter and the imperfective aspect or the view from the inside as from the street. Semantic value is encoded in a verb is uncancelable whereas Aktionstart is pragmatic value and is based on use in a context and is cancelable.
Chapter 2: The History of Verbal Aspect
The Early Period
Georg Curtius argued that there is no tense outside the indicative mood in Greek (27).
Early Twentieth Century
K. L. McKay planted the seed of the coming revolution that aspect was more important than time and eventually believed that time is not in the Greek verb “at all, except by implication from the verb’s relationship to its context” (28).
The Modern Period
Stanley Porter also concludes that Greek is aspectual and not tense-based at all, which is rejected by most traditionalists.
Buist Fanning
Fanning’s analysis is more traditional that Porter’s. Aspect has dominance over the temporal expressions in Greek verbs.
Rodney J. Decker follows Porter rejecting the temporal aspect of verbs.
Constantine Campbell follows Porter and Decker on the temporal aspect of verbs. He advocates only two aspects rejecting the stative aspect and believes that the perfect and pluperfect tense-forms are imperfective in aspect.
Current Issues
Areas of Agreement
Aspect is more important than tense
Unresolved Areas
“Among the major contributors in the modern debate, the nontense position is slightly dominant” (32). There area at least two aspects: Perfective and imperfective. “The major contributors to the modern debate clearly prefer the two-aspect position, rejecting stative aspect” (32).
Chapter 3: Perfective Aspect
Outside of an action, event, or state is called perfective aspect. The helicopter view of beginning and end. It provides an all-encompassing, or summary, view of an action and does not provide the details
The Aorist Tense-Form is Perfective in Aspect
Just because an action is presented in summary does not mean that it is unimportant. In Matthew 4:21-22, Jesus “saw” “called” the disciples and they “followed.” No details are given. Aorist may cover a long period of time as “reigned” does in Romans 5:14: Death reigned hundreds of years between Adam and Moses which dispels the myth that the aorist is punctiliar. “Perfective aspect refers to the viewpoint from which the action is viewed; it says nothing about how the action actually occurred” (36).
Tense?
85% of the time the aorist is expressed as a past tense but must be understood as a pragmatic expression on the aorist rather than as part of the its sematic meaning. Campbell prefers the word “remoteness” over past to describe the aorist. The perfective aspect is the helicopter view which is remote. Even when the past is how the aorist is used (15% of the time) remoteness covers the explanation. The aorist is used in Mark 1:11 where the Father says “You are my beloved Son; in you I am well pleased (aorist). This is the helicopter, perfective view and not a once for all event. The Father from afar is pleased with the entire life and work of His son (37-38). Therefore the augment for the aorist is a morphological marker of remoteness rather than past tense.
Narrative Function
“The basic outline of events in the story is presented by the aorist in quick succession: Jesus went...this happened...Jesus said...and so on. The basic outline, or skeletal structure, is called the mainline of a narrative” (38). In a narrative the aorist is used to push the action quickly forward giving the reader a bird’s eye view of the event rather than details as in the story in Matthew 8:32-34 where eight aorists are used.
The Future Tense-Form
Campbell argues that the verbal aspect in the future is perfective and has the semantic value of the future tense. The future tense always refers to the future.
Chapter 4: Imperfective Aspect
The simplest way define verbal aspect is viewpoint. An author views an action, event, or state from the Outside of an action, event, or state is called perfective aspect. The helicopter view of beginning and end. Inside of an action, event, or state is called imperfective aspect. The street or inside or parade view---action that is presented as though unfolding before the eyes. While we do not see the beginning or end of the parade (that the aorist gives) we appreciate the details of the parade unfolds (40).
The Present Tense-Form
The present tense-form is imperfective in aspect as demonstrated in Mark 4:14-20. The imperfect tense-form is also universally regarded as imperfective. How are the two imperfectives different? The present tense-form sees the action (the parade) as it is unfolding directing in front of the viewer. The imperfective tense-form, which has spatial value of remoteness) see that action coming and unfolding (he sees the parade further away from the viewer) (42).
The Narrative Function
The present tense-form is common in narrative as it helps the reader see the action unfolding right before the eyes.
The Historical Present
The historical present is a present tense-verb used as a past tense to introduced direct discourse.
The Imperfect Tense-Form
The imperfective tense-form, which has spatial value of remoteness) see that action coming and unfolding (he sees the parade further away from the viewer) is more common in narratives. While the aorist provides the skeletal structure (the narrative mainline) the imperfectives supply the details. The imperfective tense-form, which has spatial value of remoteness) see that action coming and unfolding (he sees the parade further away from the viewer) (42).
Chapter 5: The Problem of the Perfect
Campbell notes the different views of the perfect among grammarians. His view is that the perfect is imperfective in aspect. He writes, “An overlooked fact in this debate is that the perfect parallels the present in its usage far more than it seems to do with the aorist. In fact, the patterns of perfect usage in narrative texts is virtually identical to those of the present. Nearly all perfect indicatives in narrative texts occur within discourse, just like the present....I have argued extensively that the answer is ‘yes.’ Along with Evans I have argue that the perfect tense-form is imperfective in aspect, which is why it and the present tense-form behave so similarly.” (50). Campbell states that the perfect is different from the present in proximity. The perfect gives an even more up close view (51). He calls the perfect the superpresent.
The pluperfect is different from the imperfect in that it supplies more supplemental information than the imperfect. The example he gives is Mark 1:34. Dr. Wayne Slusser in his classroom notes stated that in verbal aspect, the aorist presented the background, the present and imperfect presented the foreground, and the perfect presented the frontground or a closer look than the perfect.
Chapter 6: Verbal Lexeme Basics
“Verbal aspect operates in cooperation with various lexemes to produce Aktionsart Expression (55). “A lexeme is the smallest or minimal unit of lexicon in a language that bears some “meaning”. A lexeme has a morphological form, semantic content (or meaning) and a syntactic category. ... For example, the lexeme PLAY can take up many forms like play, playing, plays, and played” (www.yourdictionary.com-lexeme).
Transitive Lexemes
“A lexeme is transitive if the action is performed upon an object...A person may hit a target.” To hear music is not transitive because no action is performed with the object (56).
Intransitive Lexemes
The action is performed by the subject but it is not done to anyone or anything (though it may be done with reference to someone or something). To hear music is intransitive.
Ambitransitive Lexemes
It is time to eat is intransitive. It is time to eat lunch is transitive (57).
Subcategories
Transitive: Punctiliar
A lexeme is punctiliar when it is a once occurring action like I punched the wall.
Intransitive: Stative
A stative verb does not perform an action upon an object. It is simply a state, such as know or trust. Some verbs are intransitive but not stative such as sleep, die, and decide.
Chapter 7: Present and Imperfect Tense-Forms
Semantics
Verbal Aspect
The present and imperfect tense-forms encode imperfective aspect at the semantic level. The reporter on the street view.
Spatial Qualities
Present and imperfect tense-forms are regarded as semantically encoding the spatial values of proximity and remoteness respectively (60).
Pragmatics
Narrative Forms
Present Tense-Form
In narrative texts, the present indicative is most often found as in John 5:20 and 16:15. It is to be remembered, however, that the discourse function of the present tense-form is a pragmatic feature and is therefore cancelable (61).
Imperfect Tense-Form
The imperfect indicative is most often found in narrative proper rather than discourse and provides offline material rather than the mainline skeletal like the aorist. The offline function of the imperfect tense-form is a pragmatic feature and is therefore cancelable (62).
Aktionsart Interactions (Present Tense-Form)
There are three main elements that determine the kind of action or aktionsart of a verb: semantics, lexeme, and context (62).
The present tense can pragmatically be progressive, stative, iterative, gnomic, and historical present. There are two types of historical present. The first introduces discourse and the second conveys transitions.
Nonindicative Usage (Present Tense-Form)
Subjunctive Mood
The subjunctive mood is usually translated “I might or may loose.” There is a predictable range of expressions that arise from imperfective aspect in the present subjective mood, which are conceptually unfolding, ongoing, stative, or personally characteristic (69).
Imperative Mood
The present imperative semantically encodes imperfective aspect.
Participle
The present participle semantically encodes imperfective aspect which is almost always expresses action that is contemporaneous with its leading verb.
Infinitive
Present infinitives semantically encode imperfective aspect.
Aktionsart Interactions (Imperfect Tense-Form)
There are several ways the imperfect tense-form functions pragmatically. Progressively, stative, ingressive, iterative, conative (which conveys an action that is attempted but not accomplished (78).
Chapter 8: Aorist and Future Tense-Forms
Semantics
Verbal Aspect
The aorist tense-form encodes perfective aspect at the semantic level. Tense is not regarded as a semantic value; rather, temporal reference is a pragmatic feature. Instead, the aorist tense-form is regarded as semantically encoding the spatial value of remoteness.
Pragmatics
Narrative Functions
The aorist tense-form provides the mainline of narrative proper, outlining the skeletal structure of the story.
Future Tense-Form is most often found in discourse rather that narrative proper.
Aktionsart Interactions (Aorist Tense-Form)
There are three main elements that determine a particular verb’s Aktionsart: semantics, lexemes, and context. Aorist most often depicts a process or action in summary. Aorist can also depict punctiliar, ingressive, gnomic, present aorist, and future aorist semantically encodes remoteness.
Nonindicative Usage (Aorist Tense-Form)
Subjunctive Mood. The use of the aorist subjunctive reveals regular expressions of perfective aspect.
Imperative Mood. The aorist imperative semantically encodes perfective aspect.
Participle. The aorist participle semantically encodes perfective aspect.
Infinitive. The aorist infinitives semantically encode perfective aspect.
Aktionsart Interactions (Future Tense-Form)
There are several ways in which the future tense-form functions pragmatically.
Summary future, punctiliar, and ingressive.
Chapter 9: Perfect and Pluperfect Tense-Forms
Semantics
Verbal Aspect
The perfect and pluperfect tense-forms encode imperfective aspect at the semantic level.
Spatial Qualities
The perfect tense-form semantically encodes imperfective aspect with the spatial value of heightened proximity.
The pluperfect tense-form semantically encodes imperfective aspect with the spatial value of heightened remoteness.
Pragmatics
Narrative Functions
Perfect Tense-Form is most often found in discourse.
Pluperfect Tense-Form is most often found in narrative proper as offline material.
Aktionsart Interatins (Perfect Tense-Form)
There are several ways in which the perfect tense-form functions pragmatically (106): Stative, historical present (which is used to introduce discourse and convey transitions), and progressive.
Pragmatics of heightened Proximity
Because heightened proximity creates a super closeup view of an action, it may cause some actions to become intensified. When intensification is not easily applied to a lexeme or is not deemed appropriate in the context, prominence is the pragmatic expression of heightened proximity.
Nonindicative Usage (Perfect Tense-Form): Participle
The perfect participle semantically encodes imperfective aspect that is contemporaneous with its leading verb.
Aktionsart Interactions (Pluperfect Tense-Form).
Pluperfects will normally refer either to the past, in which they stand parallel to imperfects, or to eh past-past, in which they stand “behind” imperfects and need to be rendered with “had” in translation (112). This form is found in Stative and Past-Past (“Had”) (113).
Chapter 10: More Participles
Periphrastic Participles
Periphrastic participles in the NT involve only the present and perfect participles, which may be combined with present, imperfect, or future finite auxiliaries, normally of ειμι. The aspect of the periphrasis is determined by the participle, not by the auxiliary.
Adjectival Participle
Adjectival participle are present or perfect and imperfective in aspect.
Substantival Participle
The Present Substantival Participle is imperfective in aspect.
The Aorist Substantival Participle
The aorist substantival participle is perfective in aspect.
The Perfect Substantival Participle is imperfective in aspect.
Participles of Attendant Circumstance communicates an action that is coordinate with the finite leading verb (125). Participles of attendant circumstances may take on the meaning of the imperative mood rather than expressing some kind of prior action before a command is carried out as in Matt. 28:19 (125-127)